History of Turkey

There's a lot of history here. The easiest way to deal with it in a digestible format seems to be to give a chronology of the major events to begin with. We're going to use that as a framework to hang bits and pieces on later.

7500 BC

First Stone age settlements at Çatalhüyük

1900-1300 BC

Hittite Empire with Hattusas as capital, contemporary with ancient Egypt and Babylon

1250 BC

The Trojan war and the fall of Troy

1200-700 BC

Migration of Greeks to Aegean coastal regions. Establishment of the Phrygian, Ionian, Lycian, Lydian, Carian and Pamphylian Kingdoms. The East of Turkey is the home of the Urartians

700 BC

Homer is born in Izmir (Smyrna). Aegean Hellenism begins

546 BC

Cyrus the Great leads the Persians into Anatolia

334 BC

Alexander the Great drives out the Persians

130 BC

The Romans incorporate Anatolia as the province of Asia, controlled from Ephesus (Efes)

40 BC

Antioch sees the marriage of Antony and Cleopatra

47-57 AD

St. Paul spreads Christianity and a community at Antioch is established

313

Roman Empire adopts Christianity

330

Constantine lays out the boundaries of his new capital, Constantinople

527-65

Glory of Byzantium under Justinian

638-718

Muslim Arabs besiege Constantinople

1054

Greek and Roman Churches split over theology

1071-1243

Rise and rule of the Selcuk Turks in Anatolia, Konya is their capital

1096-1204

The Crusades, marking the beginning of the end for Byzantium, a fascinating period in Byzantine history

1288

Ottoman Empire appears in Bursa

1453

The fall of Constantinople - the birth of Istanbul

1520-66

Suleyman the Magnificent sits on the Ottoman throne controlling a huge and powerful empire

1682-1725

Peter the Great initiates Russo-Turkish rivalry

1854

Crimean war

1909

Abdul Hamid, the last of an unbroken line of Ottoman sultans is deposed

1914

Turkey allies with Germany in the first world war

1915

Gallipoli

1919

Ataturk leads resistance to the allied plan to carve up Turkey

1923

Foundation of the modern Republic of Turkey by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. Many things happen all at once

1938

Ataturk dies in Istanbul's Dolmabahce palace

1939-45

Turkey manages to remain neutral during the second world war

1946

Charter membership of the UN

1952

Turkey joins NATO

1960

Military coup, successive governments ineffective

1964

Associate member status of EU

1974

Cyprus crisis

1980

Kanan Evren leads military coup. 3 years of military government

1983

Turgut Ozal elected prime Minister

1985-90

Full EU membership for Turkey impeded by Cypriot issue and questions over human rights record

1991-93

Suleyman Demirel elected Prime Minister, inflation at 70%

1993-96

Demirel President, Tansu Ciller Prime Minister, Turkey joins EU Customs Union

1997-98

5 attempts at forming coalition governments, Islamic Welfare party disbanded, reforms as Virtue and is the largest single party in parliament. Military intervenes to prevent Islamicists forming governments. 75th Anniversary of the Turkish Republic (and 15th of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus) celebrated.

Islamic History

In or about the year 570 the child who would be named Muhammad and who would become the Prophet of one of the world's great religions, Islam, was born into a family belonging to a clan of Quraysh, the ruling tribe of Mecca, a city in the Hijaz region of northwestern Arabia.

Originally the site of the Ka'bah, a shrine of ancient origins, Mecca had with the decline of southern Arabia (see Chapter l ) become an important center of sixth-century trade with such powers as the Sassanians, Byzantines, and Ethiopians. As a result the city was dominated by powerful merchant families among whom the men of Quraysh were preeminent.

Muhammad's father, 'Abd Allah ibn'Abd al-Muttalib, died before the boy was born; his mother, Aminah, died when he was six. The orphan was consigned to the care of his grandfather, the head of the clan of Hashim. After the death of his grandfather, Muhammad was raised by his uncle, Abu Talib. As was customary, Muhammad as a child was sent to live for a year or two with a Bedouin family. This custom, followed until recently by noble families of Mecca, Medina, Tayif, and other towns of the Hijaz, had important implications for Muhammad. In addition to enduring the hardships of desert life, he acquired a taste for the rich language so loved by the Arabs, whose speech was their proudest art, and learned the patience and forbearance of the herdsmen, whose life of solitude he first shared and then came to understand and appreciate.

About the year 590, Muhammad, then in his twenties, entered the service of a widow named Khadijah as a merchant actively engaged with trading caravans to the north. Sometime later Muhammad married Khadijah, by whom he had two sons - who did not survive - and four daughters.

During this period of his life Muhammad traveled widely. Then, in his forties he began to retire to meditate in a cave on Mount Hira outside of Mecca, where the first of the great events of Islam took place. One day, as he sat in the cave, he heard a voice, later identified as that of the Angel Gabriel, which ordered him to:

Recite: In the name of thy Lord who created, Created man from a clot of blood.

Three times Muhammad pleaded his inability to do so, but each time the command was repeated. Finally, Muhammad recited the words of what are now the first five verses of the 96th surah or chapter of the Quran - words which proclaim God the Creator of man and the Source of all knowledge.

At first Muhammad divulged his experience only to his wife and his immediate circle. But as more revelations enjoined him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, his following grew, at first among the poor and the slaves, but later also among the most prominent men of Mecca. The revelations he received at this time and those he did so later are all incorporated in the Quran, the Scripture of Islam.

Photo: The sun rises over Jabal al-Rahmah, the Mount of Mercy, where Muhammad in his farewell sermon told the assembled Muslims, "I have delivered God's message to you and left you with a clear command: the Book of God and the practice of His Prophet. If you hold fast to this you will never go astray."

Not everyone accepted God's message transmitted through Muhammad. Even in his own clan there were those who rejected his teachings, and many merchants actively opposed the message. The opposition, however, merely served to sharpen Muhammad's sense of mission and his understanding of exactly how Islam differed from paganism. The belief in the unity of God was paramount in Islam; from this all else followed. The verses of the Quran stress God's uniqueness, warn those who deny it of impending punishment, and proclaim His unbounded compassion to those who submit to His will. They affirm the Last Judgment, when God, the Judge, will weigh in the balance the faith and works of each man, rewarding the faithful and punishing the transgressor. Because the Quran rejected polytheism and emphasized man's moral responsibility, in powerful images, it presented a grave challenge to the worldly Meccans.

The battle of Benguela ends the Egyptian-Algerian football feud

Downtown Cairo, People watching the game in a street cafe


Before last night's game, I took a flu medication-induced rest - and dreamt that Egypt won 4-0 against Algeria. I shared my subconscious' prediction with friends - and I have a time-stamped Tweet to prove it! - and was met by nervous laughs ahead of a difficult game with a staunch adversary.

And win we did. 4-nil, as predicted, with three players expelled from the Algerian team, including its goalkeeper - it was almost too embarrassing to gloat.
Emphasis on 'almost'.

Mind you, like most of the people who took the streets I am a 'light' football aficionado, and have only a passing interest in the local league. But also like most of them I've been following the Egyptian selection's course in the African Cup of Nations currently being held in Angola, and yesterday's game had an unmistakable taste of vendetta - mainly because, as those who follow African football, Egypt has endured a painful defeat and lost its ticket to the World Cup this summer to Algeria in a tie-breaker held in Sudan's Umm-Durman stadium, which earned itself the nickname, in both Egyptian and Algerian media, of "the battle of Umm-Durman".

The days before the game were surprisingly calm, especially if you compare it to the frantic, electric, and eventually violent ambiance that preceded and immediately followed the last Algeria-Egypt game in November, during the World cup qualifiers. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs attempted to coordinate with its Algerian counterpart. A nervous League of Arab States declaration reminded of "the fraternal relations between the two countries".

This past week then it was almost a hushed, worried murmur that went around Cairo when Algeria gloriously defeated Cote d'Ivoire on January 24th to qualify to the semi-finals - overcoming a one-goal handicap to dominate in overtime, leaving the Ivorians - and the Egyptians - in disbelief.

But the Egyptian media remained suprisingly quiet - it was later made public that an official directive was issued by Egyptian Information minister Anas Al-Fiqi during his meeting on Tuesday the 24th of January with the heads of state-controlled television channels. He afterward issued a declaration asking the press and widely-watched privately-owned satellite television networks and channels, who played an unmistakable part in inflaming emotions during the November matches, to keep emotions down, emphasizing "the necessity for the media to handle the Egypt-Algeria game in a balanced, quiet and objective fashion, and to not allow emotions to draw us away from objectivity and professionalism, and to address it from a national standpoint and view it as a sporting, not a political event".

The directives which were both lauded, for their necessity, and severely criticized for the abhorrent intervention it represents in the editorial choices of supposedly private independent press and television. They nevertheless seemingly abided by the ban on inflammatory comments, and it was quite entertaining to watch the most virulent commentators, such as Amr Adib, being restrained by their co-hosts.

Even flags were far less ubiquitous that in past November. But for most everyone, winning the semi-final against Algeria seemed to be the end and purpose of the team's presence in Angola - that it was merely the semi-final to the championship game took a definite backseat.

On the Algerian side, there were no apparent such restrictions on the media and the most extreme press remained true to itself, but there too was far less displays of populism, an attitude boosted by confidence from their previous win against this very Egyptian team, as well as their excellent performance during the African cup until then.

This confidence may have turned into overconfidence and cost the Algerian team dearly, leading to a stinging defeat that shook the Algerian nets four times, and an increase of rough play that led to a flurry of yellow and red cards fall on the Algerians who only played with their full squad for the first 38 minutes - and ultimately finished the game with 8 men on the field.

Egyptians took the streets en masse until dawn as expected, creating those 3 AM traffic jams only Cairenes are capable of. The spoke of 'regained honour' and that 'winning this game was worth more than the entire championship'. Even the President's son, Alaa Mubarak - who was very vocal in November - called-in live on several television networks with the same message of congratulations and sentiment of vindication.

But everyone also kept a worried eye on the reaction of the Algerian and Egyptian fans in Angola, as the epicenter of violence after the November match was neither in Cairo or Algiers but immediately outside the Sudanese stadium. There were reasons to worry, too - the Algerian government and private companies had sponsored airline tickets, slashing prices from 200,000 Algerian dinars ($2759) to 60,000 dinars ($827) for 1000 fans, while Egypt sent one plane-load - reportedly 150 persons - to cheer the national team.
Worries also ran high on the situation in Algeria, due to the presence of a large Egyptian expat community and substantial investments that had been attacked and set on fire by angry mobs in November.
Throughout the night after the game however, despite widespread popular and press anger directed mainly at the referee of the game, no incidents have been declared - the only match-related police intervention in Algeria took place in girls' dorm at Constantine university to separate a post-game all-Algerian brawl. In France, police arrested one angry Algerian fan in Marseille. Algerian commentaries nevertheless were keen on pointing out that "there's a World Cup to focus on" - a not-so-subtle jab at the Egyptians.

Now vindicated, Egyptians have a remarkable 4-nil score to rub in the Algerians' faces. Likewise, Algerians only need hint at their World Cup qualification to infuriate the most stoic of Egyptian fans. In effect, it's an equilibrium of fan terror that leads to the burial of the hatchet.

Until the next big match? When that one takes place, I'll make sure I'm also under flu medication. It seems to work.

In the mean time, Egyptians should focus on the Cup's final game against Ghana on Sunday, in a bid to win their third consecutive title and seventh altogether.

Nashville is Country music



Country music is synonymous with Tennessee's state capital, the rapidly growing city of Nashville, where the strains of the guitar and accordion are big business, drawing millions of fans to the city every year. Dozens of famous names in the music world have been nourished in Nashville since 1925 when the legendary 'Grand Ole Opry' went on the air, broadcasting weekly shows touting the talents of up and coming singers. It all began in the downtown Ryman Auditorium, originally a church, which became the music hall where the likes of Dolly Parton and Roy Acuff first strutted their stuff.

Visitors still come today to visit Opryland, the resort that incorporates the new Grand Ole Opry, northeast of the city. Daily shows are presented here, and just around the corner is the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum. Fans also flock to the area known as The District, crammed with nightclubs, bars and restaurants where country music reigns supreme. Everyone, country music fan or not, cannot fail to leave Nashville with their toes tapping!

Berlin with many museums

For most of the latter part of the 20th century, Berlin has stood as a symbol of the division between East and West, split by the infamous fortified wall erected to separate the socialist sector from the democratic district. When the Berlin Wall was pulled down in 1990 the city discovered that it suddenly had two of everything, most notably two very distinct societies separated both socially and economically. The past decade has seen Berlin embracing unification and rebuilding itself as a modern European capital.

More than 100 streets have been reconnected, and signs of the Wall's existence have all but disappeared. Years of division are still reflected in the new city's architecture, however, with a modern city of skyscrapers, retail centres and urban developments in the West contrasting with most of the pre-War city that remains in the East.

For nearly 30 years the Wall sealed off the imposing Brandenburg Gate from the West, but now traffic passes through it freely. Similarly Alexanderplatz, which was one of the main centres of 1920s Berlin, and later post-war East Germany, has once again become one of the city's focal centres. The site of the infamous Check Point Charlie with its threatening monitoring tower erected to ensure no one crossed over from East to West, is now a museum, and while the tower no longer stands, visitors can see the East Side Gallery, a surviving chunk of the real Wall, now decorated by local artists.

Berlin is once again a vibrant centre for the arts, with many museums, galleries and theatres. At the Kulturforum visitors will find a number of impressive museums and concert venues from the spectacular Berliner Philharmonie concert hall to the complex's Picture Gallery, which houses a vast collection of European paintings from the 13th to 18th centuries.

Berlin still boasts a fantastic nightlife, and while tastes have changed since the height of the cabaret halls of the 1920s and 30s, there is a vast array of venues catering to all tastes. Berlin's calendar is also packed with festivals and parties from the Christopher Street Day gay and lesbian parade in June to the massive Love Parade dance party in July and the Jazz Fest Berlin in November.
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